9 Uses of Dna Testing

Genetic analysis is gaining popularity quickly and a genetic testing resource as well as information is available widely on the internet, in magazines, as well as in libraries.

Advances in science are finding many uses in the field of health, forensics, and genealogy. While a few years ago genetic testing or DNA testing was limited to governmental and research institutions today any individual can approach a laboratory and get DNA tests done.

Information on DNA testing as well as access to laboratories is available on the internet and people can find resources that are most convenient for them.

DNA or genetic testing has many uses:

1. In archeology DNA tests help record genetic codes and sequences of life on earth many centuries ago. This creates a data base that can be used as a ready reference.

2. Genetic testing is used to determine the paternity of a child . This helps authorities solve legal problems and settle any tussles.

3. DNA testing can be used to create a family tree or genealogical chart. Through genetic data bases one can trace lost relatives or find ancestors. Since the Y chromosome tends to remain unchanged for generations people can use DNA testing to establish ancestral lines.

4. Prenatal genetic tests help doctors determine whether or not the unborn fetus will have certain incurable health problems.

5. DNA tests are also used to help solve murders and other crimes. Often elusive criminals leave a DNA imprint at the scene of crime and testing helps catch them. In recent years many unsolved mysteries have been solved due to new ways of analysis.

6. DNA testing finds great use in the health field as DNA sometimes is the cause of rare medical conditions or heritable diseases.

7. Genetic testing is used in healths checks like that of certain cancers the tests help determine the presence of viruses or cells that have mutated.

8. DNA tests are often used to reunite lost siblings or families. The genetics of a person leaves an indelible mark and this is used by police and authorities as well as individuals to confirm relationships.

9. DNA tests on new species or on material from outer space help scientists and researchers determine the origins of a species and where they stand with reference to known living forms.

As advancements in DNA research have occurred, DNA testing gets more and more advanced to include: genetic fingerprinting, pupil recognition, creation of records of pure breeds, and more. DNA tests are today affordable and cost between USD 100-400 a test. And the conveniences are numerous; a DNA test kit can be ordered through mail order or using the internet. Laboratories all over the world conduct the testing and send the report back by mail.

Information on genetic testing and is advantages and uses is available all over the internet and those who are keen on getting a test done can do so easily using the internet and safe payment gateways.

DNA Testing – An Overview Of This Revolutionary Scientific Breakthrough

What is DNA testing? It is specified testing that searches for the absence or presence of DNA sequences. It makes use of molecular methods like DNA chips, arrays, or polymerase chain reaction. Your genetic makeup is carried inside your cells nucleus, which contains the DNA material.

Deoxyribonucleic acid is the scientific terminology for DNA. DNA determines the cells behavior, function, and structure. What is great about DNA is that not only can it tell the identity of a person, but it can also give information about four thousand genetic conditions and diseases.

There are a variety of samples that DNA testing can be conducted on. For example, semen, tissue, cheek cells, and blood cells all contain DNA. Every person has DNA that is both distinct and unique to only him or her. There is one exception however, and that is with identical twins. DNA can be compared to our individual fingerprints, thanks to the specific nature of DNA testing, paternity can be established. The courts use this method because the results of the tests are generally ten to one hundred times the accuracy required by the courts.

There are advantages and disadvantages to undergoing DNA testing. For example, DNA testing is typically not covered by insurance. Even though we have laws in place that are designed to protect us from health insurance discrimination, many people believe that the results of genetic testing may affect their chances of obtaining insurance coverage.

Family dynamics is an area of major concern for many people. For most families, the genes within the family are considered to be an heirloom. Therefore, this revolutionary testing might have some negative impact on the family. Furthermore, the testing might reveal relationships that were previously unknown, perhaps paternity, or maybe even reveal family secrets.

This testing can have different types of effects on people both before and after the tests have been conducted. Therefore, it is wise to obtain professional help to deal with these issues and feelings.

The government and courts rely on DNA testing in solving crimes and finding leads. The method of DNA collection have proven guilt in crimes, as well as proven innocence in some wrongly accused of serious crimes or felonies.

You might likely see some advertisements for home DNA testing kits. It is important to remember that they often make promises that they cannot keep. The internet plays host to some of these sales and you could look at paying between $100 and $1,000 to purchase the kits. The General Accountability Office (GAO) states that these tests essentially create predictions that have been unproven medically and fail to provide meaningful information.

The United States FBI is wanting to keep a database nationally of DNA. There is a large amount of controversy surrounding this; many feel that obtaining DNA from any person without first gaining permission is going too far. It is far too easy for them to obtain DNA from a coffee cup or toothbrush.

Summary:

There are advantages and disadvantages to undergoing DNA testing. The government and courts rely on DNA testing in solving crimes and finding leads. The method of DNA collection have proven guilt in crimes, as well as proven innocence in some wrongly accused of serious crimes or felonies.

Gene Testing OnLine – Do You Really Want to Know?

In Mid-September of 2008, Google founder Sergey Brin launched a personal blog, Too. The first post in that blog was a stunner and received huge media attention! The blog post unveiled that Brin who underwent a gene test at 23andMe, a California-based gene testing company co-founded by his wife Anne Wojcicki, is carrying a mutant gene linked to Parkinson’s disease. According to the results of 23andMe’s gene test, Brin’s genetic profile includes mutation of a gene, called LRRK2. And previous research has shown that this particular mutation of LRRK2, known as G2019S, may increase a person’s risk for a type of Parkinson’s disease that runs in families. Brin’s mother suffers Parkinson’s disease and 23andMe’s gene test showed that she also has the G2019S mutation in her genetic make-up.

“When my wife asked me to look up G2019S in my raw data (23andMe scientists had had the forethought to include it on their chip), I viewed it mostly as entertainment,” writes Brin in his blog. “But, of course, I learned something very important to me, I carry the G2019S mutation and when my mother checked her account, she saw she carries it too.”

Brin points out in the blog that he has “a markedly higher chance of developing Parkinson’s in my lifetime than the average person.” “In fact, it is somewhere between 20% to 80% depending on the study and how you measure,” he writes.

Like Brin, people are now interested in checking their disease risk through gene or DNA tests. And thus, genetic testing is emerging as a new trend in personal healthcare, where people prefer to order the test online, know about their propensity for various diseases, and prepare for disease prevention.

Regarding his test, Brin writes, in his blog: “This leaves me in a rather unique position. I know early in my life something I am substantially predisposed to. I now have the opportunity to adjust my life to reduce those odds (e.g. there is evidence that exercise may be protective against Parkinson’s). I also have the opportunity to perform and support research into this disease long before it may affect me. And, regardless of my own health it can help my family members as well as others.”

For a gene test, an individual has to register and make the payment online. Then a test kit is sent for collection of the sample (that is the saliva of the customer). The kit includes a test tube, where the customer has to spit, and then mail the tube to the company. The results are obtained in about a month through a web account. The information unveils a genetic make-up of the customer, propensities for certain diseases, and some other genetic features including how one would probably respond to a group of drugs.

However, the results unveiled by a gene test are only considered informational and not diagnostic. There are several companies where the tests can be carried out including (amid others) California-based 23andMe and Navigenics and Iceland-based DeCode Genetics. In 2008 the California public health department granted 23andMe and Navigenics a license to offer gene services to their customers, with the condition that physicians have to be involved in ordering the genetic tests.

According to a web document by Navigenics, the company scans its customers’ DNA for “genetic risk markers associated with both common and uncommon health conditions.” “We use rigorous standards for deciding which conditions to include in your report,” the document adds.

The test done by Navigenics unveils risks for several conditions, such as obesity, psoriasis, prostate cancer, glaucoma, Crohn’s disease, colon cancer, stomach cancer, breast cancer, lung cancer, celiac disease, lupus, heart attack, atrial fibrillation, Grave’s disease, type-2 diabetes, osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, to name a few. However, the test doesn’t cover certain conditions, Navigenics points out, and these include brain cancer, schizophrenia, height and eye color, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and HIV susceptibility or resistance.

The cost for online gene testing varies and usually ranges from $1000 to $2500. However, on September 9, 2008, 23andMe came up with a substantial price cut for its gene testing service. According to the company, the price was reduced to democratize personal genetics and expand people’s opportunity to benefit from the genetic revolution. “Effective immediately, 23andMe is offering its service for $399,” declared a press release by the company. “23andMe is able to offer the reduced price thanks to technological advancements made by the company that provides its DNA scanning technology, Illumina, Inc,” the release says.

23andMe’s co-founder Wojcicki comments, in the release, “By taking advantage of continuing innovation we are able to introduce a new chip that will give people more relevant data at a lower price.” “We are excited that we are opening doors for more people to learn about their health and ancestry and for more people to be able to participate in advancing research. It is important to democratize personal genetics and make it more accessible.”

Despite this enthusiasm for genetic testing in America, there are issues that have evoked strong negative vibes against the trend. Critics say, a DNA test speaks only of the preponderance of an individual for a disease or more than one disease-it can’t say anything conclusive. For example, a large number of people with G2019S mutation (the mutation that Brin has) never contracts Parkinson’s disease. Moreover, according to critics, stamping an individual predisposed to certain conditions on the basis of genetic testing may cause substantial psychological trauma to him or her. That apart, there is also possibility that insurance companies or employers would discriminate against a person on the basis of a gene test, which is why in May 2008, President Bush signed legislation into law that would bar insurance companies and employers from discriminating against anyone on the basis of genetic information.

However, Brin considers himself “fortunate” for the genetic test he underwent. “Until the fountain of youth is discovered, all of us will have some conditions in our old age, only we don’t know what they will be,” he writes in his blog. “I have a better guess than almost anyone else for what ills may be mine and I have decided to prepare for it.”

Gina And Its Unintended (And Intended) Consequences

The Unintended Consequences of the Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act (GINA)

Labeled as “a solution in search of a problem” because similar state laws rarely turned up any violations, the federal Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act (GINA) nonetheless is the law of the land, affecting employers and health insurers both directly and indirectly.

The purpose of GINA is to prevent employers and those making health insurance decisions from discriminating against people because of knowledge obtained about their genetic dispositions—a family history of sickle cell anemia or any other physical condition, for instance. Of course, very few employers are inclined to test employees for genetic purposes, though they certainly could come into possession of such information through direct questioning or background investigations, even through snooping on people’s social media pages. Health insurers, needless to say, are even more likely to directly quiz applicants and do detailed investigations to weed out those considered too risky.

GINA, however, now prohibits the use of family medical history (as well as genetic testing results) in decision-making by employers and insurers, and for definition purposes the legislation specifies this prohibition embraces four generations of family members, going all the way back to one’s great-great grandparents and every aunt, uncle and cousin in between. The definition also includes adoptive parents and adopted children with no direct blood ties. The law further prohibits seeking information on every “manifestation of disease or disorder in a family member,” even those conditions that lack genetic markers. (GINA protections, however, do not extend to life insurance, disability insurance, or long-term care insurance.)

GINA makes no exceptions to its rule of barring employment (or health insurance) decisions on genetic information even if such information is essential to an employee’s job duties. The only exceptions to the law involve instances when the genetic information is inadvertently obtained by, for instance, overhearing a conversation, or when it is obtained during the course of a disability-related reasonable accommodation or during a request for Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA) leave. Even when the information is obtained in this manner—inadvertently or in the course of other personnel matters—it cannot be used in any employment decision other than for FMLA or disability purposes.

The law is broken down into several sections. The first two major sections are most relevant. Title I of GINA concerns health insurers, and Title II deals with employers. Regulations for both legislative sections and both groups were proposed in 2009 and have since wended their way through various reviews and public commentary periods. The comments on the Title I proposal closed in January 2010, but the regulations have already been published as an Interim Final Rule and are fully in effect for all health plans, with a Final Rule expected soon. Title II regulations have been stuck at the OMB for months and were due to be released to coincide with the law’s effective date of Nov. 21, 2009. They never made it. Now it appears that the regulations will be released in March 2010. However, GINA has been in full effect since Nov. 21, and employers are just as much affected and expected to comply as are insurers.

Part of the hang-up on Title II regulations stems from the contentious issue of employers’ use of social media sites to obtain information on job applicants and even on current employees. Insurers, of course, are just as likely and perhaps more likely to e-snoop. In the regulatory debate so far, business interests have generally supported open access to social media pages on Facebook, MySpace and elsewhere and have lobbied for mere regulatory restrictions on the use of family medical history and genetic information found online, while leaving open the practice of mining social media data for other purposes (i.e., hiring and firing). Civil rights and First Amendment advocates, as well as individual citizens (who also happen to be these very same spied-upon employees), have come out in favor of a blanket ban on employers’ using these sites for any purpose.

Thus one of the perhaps unintended consequences of GINA was a debate and a potential restriction on employer use of social media sites. Another perhaps unintended consequence was the law’s impact on company wellness programs, which rely heavily on family medical histories and genetic information to inform employees how best to improve their health and well-being. The GINA restrictions on both genetics and family history pretty much put the kibosh on these programs unless the employees confer confidentially with a health care professional, who will then safeguard their personal health information (PHI) under the rules and regulations of HIPAA (the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996) as amended by GINA.

Sound complicated? That could be why the implementing regulations are taking so long to be finalized, even though the law was passed and signed in 2008 and took effect in late 2009.

One intended consequence of some provisions (Title III) in GINA deals with child labor laws and their penalties. GINA increased the monetary fines for violations of child labor laws, and the Obama administration in response has vowed tougher enforcement. Fines for the death of a minor at work are now capped at $50,000 ($100,000 for repeat or willful violations); fines for serious injuries run from $15,000 to $40,000; and fines for minor injuries reach a ceiling at $11,000. In one of the first uses of the new fine schedule, the Department of Labor (DOL) recently fined a firm $53,162 for the death of a minor–$50,000 for the fatality and $3,162 for shoddy recordkeeping.

GINA’s reach extends to public agencies of any size and to private firms with 15 or more employees. In addition to the increased child labor penalties, GINA also includes heavy fines for violations of employees’ genetic information privacy rights. These fines are capped at $500,000 but become uncapped if the violation is shown to be willful or intentional. Retaliation directed at an employee exercising his or her GINA rights is also prohibited.

Pursuing one’s rights under GINA mirrors the administrative procedures under civil rights laws. A complaint must be lodged with the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC), which will then review and perhaps investigate the charge. The result, if any violation is uncovered, could be EEOC administrative or legal action or the issuance of a right-to-sue authorization from the agency. In light of this, the EEOC has revised and reissued its “Equal Employment Is the Law” poster, while the Department of Labor has revised its federal minimum wage poster to reflect the increased fines for child labor violations.

Though as the states found earlier, genetic nondiscrimination laws may turn up few violators, GINA is still a force to be reckoned with, especially if Title II regulations end up banning the use of social media for any employment or health decision purpose.

Meanwhile, employers are advised to review their policies, procedures and personnel forms to ensure that genetic and family history information is not being sought or collected. Managers and other responsible personnel should be informed of GINA’s restrictions and trained on their obligations under the new law. Also, if medical information is kept on any employees, it should be stored separately from any personnel files and be guarded for security and privacy under HIPAA. And of course, the mandated EEOC and minimum wage posters must be up to date.

Help is available. Both of these revised posters have been incorporated into Personnel Concepts’ Space Saver-1 All-On-One State and Federal Labor Law Poster series. In addition, Personnel Concepts also offers a GINA Compliance Kit and an EEO Compliance Kit. Displaying the revised EEOC and DOL posters is mandatory, while the two compliance kits are important tools to help firms navigate the nation’s byzantine structure of enforcement agencies and labor regulations. Don’t let GINA blindside you. Act now to comply and protect your company.

Genetic Testing Kit

Welcome to Genetic Testing Kit. Genetic Testing Kit gathers together informative genetic testing articles, educational genetic testing videos, and lively chatter and conversation about genetic DNA testing in general.

Genetic testing allows the genetic predispositions to inherit traits and diseases. Genetic testing kits can also be used to determine a child’s paternity (genetic father or mother) or a person’s ancestry.

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Normally, every person carries two copies of every gene, one inherited from their mother, one inherited from their father. The human genome is believed to contain around 20,000 – 25,000 genes.

Most of the time, testing is used to find changes that are associated with inherited disorders. The results of a genetic test can confirm or rule out a suspected genetic condition or help determine a person’s chance of developing or passing on a genetic disorder. Since genetic testing may open up ethical or psychological problems, genetic testing is often accompanied by genetic counseling.

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